Chapter 1, Sec. 2.1, 2.2 & 2.3

2.1 The Middle Ages - WARS, TRADE, AND TOWNS

Still, feudalism was not the only source of stability. The Roman Catholic Church served as the strongest unifying force in medieval Europe. Late in the 11th century, the Church waged the Crusades, wars against the spread of Islam. That religion's followers, called Muslims, had seized control of the Holy Land-the city of Jerusalem and the surrounding area. They'd also begun to attack the Christian Byzantine Empire, once the eastern half of the Roman Empire.

The Crusades continued for two centuries, allowing Crusaders to acquire land in areas previously conquered by Muslims. The land acquisition led to the establishment of trade centers. Though the Crusaders were ultimately unsuccessful-they eventually lost any land they captured-their actions increased trade between Europe and the eastern Mediterranean region.

As trade increased in Europe, businesses and the economy grew. Towns grew, too, as people left their positions on the manors for better jobs.

Outbreaks of a devastating disease called the bubonic plague also created jobs. In the 14th century, the plague killed as many as one-third of all Europeans. Those laborers lucky enough to survive the illness found better work prospects as a result of the decline in population. Less competition led to greater opportunities for those who survived.

The plague, along with the movement to cities and towns, helped bring about the decline of feudalism and the end of the Middle Ages. Europe began to experience cultural changes that would mark the beginning of a' new age of creativity.

2.2 Renaissance and Reformation - REBIRTH OF ART AND LEARNING

Historians called the revolutionary movement that began at the end of the Middle Ages the Renaissance, which means "rebirth." The Renaissance originated in Italy and spread to other parts of Europe. The movement had its roots in the classical writings of ancient Greece and Rome and the philosophy of humanism. Humanists encouraged freedom of thought and the development of new ideas.

The Renaissance also saw the revival of elements of ancient Greek and Roman architecture, such as columns and arches. This revival enabled generations of artists and architects to achieve levels of artistic creation not seen in Europe for a thousand years. Painters such as Raphael and Michelangelo, and architects such as Brunelleschi, created works that still inspire awe in people today. Leonardo da Vinci is considered by many to be the ideal Renaissance figure. Leonardo not only painted artistic masterpieces, but he was also an inventor, sculptor, and architect. His studies of anatomy and other sciences proved to be ahead

of their time.

The ideas of the Renaissance also had an effect on literature. In the mid-1400s, Johann Gutenberg's invention of the printing press, which used movable metal type to print pages, allowed for mass distribution of classical and humanist literary works. As the availability of

printed materials increased, more people learned to read, and the philosophy of the Renaissance and humanist movement began to spread rapidly across Europe.

2.2 Renaissance and Reformation - DIVISIONS IN THE CHURCH

Around the time of the Renaissance, the Catholic Church began to lose some of its power. Some members charged the Church with corruption and called for reform. This gradual progression toward change within the Church eventually led to the Reformation, a split from the Catholic Church that took place in the early 16th century. Martin Luther, a German pastor and university professor, led this movement. He believed biblical scripture was more important than the pope's authority. He also believed that Christians achieved God's favor through faith rather than by doing good works. Luther was eventually excommunicated, or expelled, from the Catholic Church for his teachings.

Followers of the Reformation became known as Protestants, and the Church split between the Protestants and Catholics. Over time, many different Protestant churches, called denominations, developed, each with its own set of beliefs within the framework of Christianity.

2.3 Trade Expands - EXPANDING TRADE WITH ASIA

In the mid-15th century, the Turks of the Ottoman Empire captured the city of Constantinople.

Located on a peninsula between Europe and Asia, Constantinople joined the two continents. Capturing the city gave the Turks complete control of the land trade routes that connected the continents. This control allowed the Turks to charge Europeans high prices for Asian goods. Turkish merchants could then make a profit, or earn more money than they spent, on the goods.

To avoid trading with the Turks over land, Europeans explored new sea routes to Asia. At the end of the 15th century, Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama sailed to India via one of these routes. He and his fleet traveled around the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of Africa. Portuguese navigator Bartholomeu Dias had first discovered this route about a decade earlier. Da Gama was able to return from his trip with Indian spices. This journey helped reestablish direct trade between Europe and the East.