Base your answers to questions in this group on the information below and on your knowledge of Earth and Space Sciences. Some questions may require the use of the 2024 Edition Reference Tables for Earth and Space Sciences. Be sure to record your multiple choice questions on a separate answer sheet provided. Record your answers for the constructed response questions in your test booklet.

The Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) diagram was developed from star charts by two scientists in different countries independently of each other in 1911. It classified stars based on their surface temperatures, observable color, and magnitude. Absolute magnitude is a measurement of how bright a star would appear if all stars are the same distance from Earth. The brighter the star, the lower the absolute magnitude value.

Base your answers to this group of questions on the information below and on your knowledge of Earth and Space Sciences. Some questions may require the use of the 2024 Edition Reference Tables for Earth and Space Sciences.

Stars and the Big Bang

Our Sun is a 4.6 billion-year-old yellow dwarf star. It was formed either from matter produced during the Big Bang or from matter released when large stars reached supernova and exploded. This matter, in the form of hydrogen, contracted into a denser gas cloud due to gravity. The temperature at this cloud's core increased, allowing for the fusion of two hydrogen nuclei into one helium nucleus. The mass of this helium nucleus is slightly less than the mass of the hydrogen nuclei. This difference in mass is the source of the star’s energy. The model below shows some information about the life cycles of different stars.

Base your answers to questions in this group on the information below and on your knowledge of Earth and Space Sciences. Some questions may require the use of the 2024 Edition Reference Tables for Earth and Space Sciences. Be sure to record your answers for the multiple-choice questions on a separate answer sheet provided. Record your answers for the constructed-response questions in your test booklet.

Energy in the Sun The Sun’s energy influences the environment of all celestial objects in our solar system. Different forms of the hydrogen and helium atoms contained in the Sun’s core, deuterium (2 H) and the helium atom (3 He), are under very high temperatures and pressures. These atoms combine to form helium (4 He), while releasing tremendous amounts of energy. 

The model below shows some information about the Sun.

Base your answers to questions in this group on the information below and on your knowledge of Earth and Space Sciences. Some questions may require the use of the 2024 Edition Reference Tables for Earth and Space Sciences.

Telescopes and the History of the Universe

Two space telescopes that are providing astronomers with information about the early universe are the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) and the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST).

The HST orbits Earth at a distance of 540 km above the surface and can observe visible, ultraviolet (UV), and infrared (IR) radiation. It contains cameras and spectrographs that break light into the colors of the spectrum for analysis of elements found in stars.

Hubble has determined the age of the universe to a more precise date of 13.8 billion years old and has photographed galaxies in all stages of evolution—even galaxies from the early universe.

A central idea of the Big Bang theory is that the universe expanded rapidly and released energy. Scientists have been gathering evidence for this expansion and energy release since the early 1920s.

The photograph below, from 1964, shows two scientists in New Jersey with a radio telescope aimed towards outer space. This telescope was one of the first to record cosmic microwave background radiation coming from all directions in space.

Base your answers to this group of questions on the information below and on your knowledge of Earth and Space Sciences. Some questions may require the use of the 2024 Edition Reference Tables for Earth and Space Sciences.

Earth-Moon History

About four billion years ago, the Moon was very close to Earth, and Earth may

have been rotating at a much faster rate than today. It is estimated that each Earth

day, at that time, may have been six to eight hours long, which, when calculated,

would result in an Earth year of about 1400 days. The force that causes tides on

Earth creates tidal friction which, over time, slowed Earth’s rotation, causing Earth

days to become about 24 hours long. As Earth’s rate of rotation has decreased,

the Moon has continued to move farther away from Earth at an average rate of

3.8 cm/yr. The Moon orbits Earth at an average distance of 384,400 km. The

model and graph below show some information about tides.

AUG ‘25 ESS1-7

Base your answers to this group of questions on the information below and on your knowledge of Earth and Space Sciences. 

The Effect of the Moon on Earth

 Earth’s Moon is the only celestial object beyond Earth where humans have set foot. It is the brightest and largest object in the night sky. The Moon makes Earth a more livable planet by moderating the wobble of Earth on its axis, leading to a relatively stable climate. 

The models below represent two different positions of a person on Earth’s surface six hours apart. The relative height of the ocean tides at these positions are indicated. The arrow represents the direction of Earth’s rotation. 

The data table below shows some information about celestial objects viewed from Vanderpool, Texas. Vanderpool, Texas is a location where two types of solar eclipses were visible.

Solar Eclipses at Vanderpool, Texas

Base your answers to questions in this group on the information below and on your knowledge of Earth and Space Sciences. Some questions may require the use of the 2024 Edition Reference Tables for Earth and Space Sciences.

The Power of Water

Water in its many forms is unique to our planet. It is required for life as we know it and it can be used for a wide variety of beneficial purposes such as recreation and generating electricity. However, water can also be destructive and cause problems for humanity. Concrete is an important building material that can be affected by water. The photograph below shows how structures are built with concrete and rebar (metal rods used to provide strength).

Concrete Pour With Rebar Structure

An experiment was conducted on samples of concrete, with and without rebar, to see how freeze-thaw cycles affected the deformation of the concrete. The graph shows some information about the freeze-thaw experiment.

How Freeze-Thaw Cycles Affect the Deformation of Concrete

Base your answers to questions in this group on the information below and on your knowledge of Earth and Space Sciences. Some questions may require the use of the 2024 Edition Reference Tables for Earth and Space Sciences.

Telescopes and the History of the Universe

Two space telescopes that are providing astronomers with information about the early universe are the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) and the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST).

The HST orbits Earth at a distance of 540 km above the surface and can observe visible, ultraviolet (UV), and infrared (IR) radiation. It contains cameras and spectrographs that break light into the colors of the spectrum for analysis of elements found in stars.

Hubble has determined the age of the universe to a more precise date of 13.8 billion years old and has photographed galaxies in all stages of evolution—even galaxies from the early universe.

A central idea of the Big Bang theory is that the universe expanded rapidly and released energy. Scientists have been gathering evidence for this expansion and energy release since the early 1920s.

The photograph below, from 1964, shows two scientists in New Jersey with a radio telescope aimed towards outer space. This telescope was one of the first to record cosmic microwave background radiation coming from all directions in space.

Base your answers to questions in this group on the information below and on your knowledge of Earth and Space Sciences. Some questions may require the use of the 2024 Edition Reference Tables for Earth and Space Sciences.

How Did Earth Get Its Water?

Scientists are unsure about where and how Earth got its water. Early Earth lacked an atmosphere and was very hot, so water would not have formed in such an environment. One theory is that water was brought to Earth when comets collided with Earth, since comets are made of frozen water, gases, and dust.

Another theory centers around asteroids. Earth is believed to have formed from the clumping together of space debris. These early solar system materials contained the elements hydrogen and oxygen. The chemical proportions of the water found on asteroids are similar, though different, from Earth's water.

The most recent discoveries have come from studies of dust particles brought back to Earth from the Hokawa asteroid. The particles were found to have water and an oxygen-hydrogen ion. The source of the hydrogen is believed to be from solar wind — hydrogen ions ejected from the Sun streaming through space and lodging onto the surface of dust particles. These particles have been falling to Earth since the solar system formed. The space dust is believed to have provided about 50% of Earth's water.

The graph below shows the relative deuterium-to-hydrogen ratio ($D/H$) in water found in solar system objects. Diamond symbols are measurements obtained by satellites. Dots are estimated values. Deuterium is a “heavier” form of hydrogen. This ratio is an important factor in determining where in the solar system an object formed and how asteroids, comets, and the solar wind contributed to the water in Earth's oceans.

Base your answers to questions in this group on the information below and on your knowledge of Earth and Space Sciences. Some questions may require the use of the 2024 Edition Reference Tables for Earth and Space Sciences.

About four billion years ago, the Moon was very close to Earth, and Earth may have been rotating at a much faster rate than today. It is estimated that each Earth day, at that time, may have been six to eight hours long, which, when calculated, would result in an Earth year of about 1400 days. The force that causes tides on Earth creates tidal friction which, over time, slowed Earth’s rotation, causing Earth days to become about 24 hours long. As Earth’s rate of rotation has decreased, the Moon has continued to move farther away from Earth at an average rate of $3.8 \, \text{cm/yr}$. The Moon orbits Earth at an average distance of $384,400 \, \text{km}$. The model and graph below show some information about tides.

Base your answers to questions in this group on the information below and on your knowledge of Earth and Space Sciences. Some questions may require the use of the 2024 Edition Reference Tables for Earth and Space Sciences.

New York State Fossils of Note

The New York State fossil shown below is a Silurian-age eurypterid called Eurypterus remipes.

This fossil was originally believed to be a catfish before being correctly described as an arthropod — an invertebrate with a segmented exoskeleton and hinged appendages. Some eurypterid appendages were used for walking, while other appendages were used for swimming.

The model below is a family-level evolutionary tree (cladogram) for various eurypterids. The bars represent known temporal ranges for each family. Some eurypterid silhouettes are shown to scale with lines indicating their temporal placement in each family.

Base your answers to questions in this group on the information below and on your knowledge of Earth and Space Sciences. Some questions may require the use of the 2024 Edition Reference Tables for Earth and Space Sciences.

Stars and the Big Bang

Our Sun is a 4.6 billion-year-old yellow dwarf star. It was formed either from matter produced during the Big Bang or from matter released when large stars reached supernova and exploded. This matter, in the form of hydrogen, contracted into a denser gas cloud due to gravity. The temperature at this cloud’s core increased, allowing for the fusion of two hydrogen nuclei into one helium nucleus. The mass of this helium nucleus is slightly less than the mass of the hydrogen nuclei. This difference in mass is the source of the star’s energy. The model below shows some information about the life cycles of different stars.

In the 1920s, Edwin Hubble studied the motion of galaxies. He found a relationship between a galaxy’s velocity as measured from Earth (recessional velocity) and the galaxy’s distance from Earth. This relationship is known as Hubble’s Law. This law has implications for understanding how the universe has changed since the Big Bang.

The graph below shows data on several galaxies’ distances from Earth in megaparsecs (Mpc) and their recessional velocities.

Base your answers to questions in this group on the information below and on your knowledge of Earth and Space Sciences. Some questions may require the use of the 2024 Edition Reference Tables for Earth and Space Sciences.

New York State’s Hudson River

New York State’s Hudson River watershed covers almost 1340 square miles and includes three different watersheds: Mohawk River, Hudson River Estuary, and Upper Hudson River watersheds. The Hudson River flows south for almost 325 miles from the Adirondacks to New York City. The 153-mile-section from Troy to New York Harbor in New York City is a tidal estuary. Here, fresh water flowing south down the river meets salt water pushing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The leading edge of sea water entering the estuary is called the salt front. The salt front moves with the tides, the weather, and the seasons. When there is heavy rain, more fresh water flows into the Hudson River.

Cities and towns that take their drinking water from the Hudson River carefully track the salt front as it affects the quality of drinking water.

Base your answers to questions in this group on the information below and on your knowledge of Earth and Space Sciences. Some questions may require the use of the 2024 Edition Reference Tables for Earth and Space Sciences.

The Origin of Our Solar System

The Sun and eight planets in the Solar System formed at the same time. Evidence of their formation can be found throughout the Solar System. Scientists have used data from planets, meteorites, and Earth to determine how the Solar System formed and its early history. The data table below lists some information for the eight planets.

Base your answers to questions in this group on the information below and on your knowledge of Earth and Space Sciences.

Plate Tectonics

Alfred Wegener was a German geophysicist and meteorologist who proposed the theory of continental drift in 1912. This theory attempted to explain how similar rock formations and plant and animal fossils could be found on separate continents. Widely dismissed by other scientists from Wegener’s time, continental drift would eventually be accepted and become known as the theory of plate tectonics by the 1960s.

The model below shows some information about the position of the continents.

One of the methods used to determine the absolute age of a rock is through the collection and analysis of zircon crystals. Zircon crystals have been found in some Appalachian Mountain regions. They grow in magma or semi-molten rock and are made of silicon, oxygen, and zirconium. Zircon crystals are ideal for age dating because they have the following characteristics:

• commonly formed in felsic igneous rocks

• found in numerous sediments, such as beach sand, river sediments, and wind (eolian) deposits

• have a very high melting temperature and hardness

• high density but non-magnetic

• contain small but measurable amounts of uranium (which substitutes for the zirconium in the crystal lattice when the crystal grows)
  
  

Base your answers to questions in this group on the information below and on your knowledge of Earth and Space Sciences.

Theia and the Moon

The Giant Impact hypothesis is the most widely accepted theory for the formation of the Moon. Shortly after Earth formed, a small planetary body called Theia collided with Earth. Some remains of Theia were included into Earth's interior. Other remains formed into a ring of vapor, dust, and molten rock. Eventually, the pieces clumped together (accreted), forming the Moon.

The Late Heavy Bombardment is a period of time when Earth, the Moon, and the other inner planets experienced intense impact activity from asteroids and comets. These impacts created cratered surfaces on both Earth and the Moon. The Late Heavy Bombardment is believed to have peaked about 3.9 billion years ago.

The model below shows some information about the impact of Theia with Earth, an event that eventually led to the Moon's formation.

Information about the Moon’s early history can be obtained from observations of craters on the Moon’s surface. The photographs below show four different impact craters.