Base your answers to questions 28 through 31 on the information below and on your knowledge of Earth and Space Sciences. Some questions may require the use of the 2024 Edition Reference Tables for Earth and Space Sciences.
New York’s Concrete Industry
The production of concrete starts by mixing limestone and clay together, which are heated and dried in a kiln to produce clinker. Clinker is then pulverized into a fine powder and mixed with gypsum to make Portland cement. Aggregates, such as crushed stone and sand, are added to the Portland cement along with water to make a new product called concrete.
The pie charts below show some information about the carbon footprint of the three stages of concrete production. Carbon footprint is the percent of carbon emissions generated at each stage.
Carbon Footprint of Each Stage of Concrete Production
Concrete has been used for centuries in the development of urban areas. The model below shows some information about urbanization.
Urbanization Impact on Earth's Spheres
Engineers have developed a newer type of concrete, called porous concrete, to address some environmental issues that accompany urbanization. An investigation was completed by an engineer in northern New York using the properties of water to determine water’s impact on porous concrete. The tables below show some information on the properties of concrete and water. The photographs show the results of the engineer’s investigation.
Porosity
Concrete Type | Open Space (%) |
|---|
Traditional | 3–5 |
Porous | 15–22 |
Properties of Water
Phase | Temperature ($^\circ\text{C}$) | Density (g/mL) |
|---|
Liquid | 4 | 1.0 |
Solid | 0 | 0.92 |
Porous Concrete
The six factual statements below describe some considerations for the use of porous concrete throughout New York State.
I — Sand cannot be used on new porous concrete for ice control.
II — Porous concrete typically has a cooler surface temperature during the summer.
III — Porous concrete has a higher cost for installation and maintenance.
IV — Porous concrete cannot be used for roads, bridges, dams, and buildings.
V — Porous concrete filters sediments from runoff.
VI — Porous concrete has a rougher surface and provides better traction during the winter.
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