2026 (Aug.): NY Regents - Earth and Space Science

A student studying the mineral composition of a basalt sample from Gran Canaria made the following claim:

“The Gran Canaria basalt sample has a felsic composition and contains sodium-rich minerals.”

Cite evidence about the composition of basalt to refute the student’s claim. Justify your response by including at least two minerals as evidence.

Base your answers to questions 19 through 22 on the information below and on your knowledge of Earth and Space Sciences. Some questions may require the use of the 2024 Edition Reference Tables for Earth and Space Sciences.

Dams on the Colorado River

There are over 14 major dams located along the 1450-mile-long Colorado River. The dams were built to ensure equitable distribution of water along the entire length of the Colorado River. Two of the largest dams found along the Colorado River are the Hoover and Glen Canyon. The reservoirs (Lake Mead and Lake Powell) that were created upstream of the dams are two of the largest in the United States. During years of drought, these dams guarantee water to the Lower Colorado River states (Lower Basin). In years with excess precipitation, the dams store runoff for future use. Both dams are also a major source of hydroelectricity. The dams control seasonal flooding along the Colorado River and provide irrigation for farming.

The map below shows some information about the Colorado River. The Colorado River is the boundary between California, Nevada, and Arizona.

The Colorado River: Its Tributaries and Dams

The construction of the Hoover Dam in 1935 created Lake Mead, which extends 110 miles upstream. Sedimentation in Lake Mead is generally distributed along the bottom of the deepest parts of the lake.

The data table below shows some information about sedimentation in Lake Mead. An acre-foot is equal to the volume of material that covers one acre of land to a depth of one foot.

Lake Mead Sedimentation From 1935-2001

* due to significant compaction of sediments in some parts of the lake

A 14-year investigation of seasonal salinity levels was conducted in Lake Mead. The map below shows some of the locations where salinity was measured.

The salinity cross-sections contain isolines that indicate salinity levels in parts per million (ppm).

Named Locations Along Lake Mead

The salinity cross-sections contain isolines that indicate salinity levels in parts per million (ppm).

Salinity Cross-Sections for Four Seasons

The map, model, and graph below show some information about the states that use water along the Colorado River. The unit maf represents millions of acre-feet.

Upper and Lower Basin States that Rely on the Colorado River for Water

Water Use in Lower Basin States

The Colorado River supplies water for a large farming industry in California and for many southern California cities. Due to drought conditions that have occurred in western states when supply did not meet demand, lower basin states have had to change their water usage practices. Some examples of these changes are summarized below.

• Farmers that use irrigation in California have exchanged money for 500,000 acre-feet of water a year to southern California communities.

• Farmers in California are investing in more efficient irrigation systems and intentionally not using large areas of land.

• Nevada is paying residents in many communities to not plant grass and remove existing grass.

• Arizona, Nevada, and California all agreed to reduce water usage until 2026 by at least 3 million acre-feet for each state.

• California lined several water canals to prevent water loss along the canals.

Dams cause ecosystems to change when the normal flow of water is disrupted. The Glen Canyon Dam is downstream of Lake Powell. Drought conditions have caused the elevation of the lake to decrease and the temperature of the water to increase.

Warm water smallmouth bass now live in the lake. They pass through the dam and spawn downstream in the Colorado River. They prey on federally protected native fish species in the Grand Canyon downstream region.

Water management scientists have decided to release cold water from the lake to cool the Colorado River downstream of the dam.

The model below shows some information about water temperatures in Lake Powell near the Glen Canyon Dam.

Lake Powell Water Temperatures (June 26, 2024)

Base your answers to questions 23 through 27 on the information below and on your knowledge of Earth and Space Sciences. Some questions may require the use of the 2024 Edition Reference Tables for Earth and Space Sciences.

Carbon Emissions in Industry

Concrete is the most widely used building material worldwide. It is a mixture of cement, water, sand, and gravel. Cement is the glue that holds the sand and gravel together and gives the concrete its strength.

The production of cement and the use of concrete are major contributors to carbon dioxide (CO$_2$) emissions worldwide. Cement production is the most carbon‑intensive part because it uses fossil fuels to heat a mixture of limestone (CaCO$_3$) and other ingredients to more than $2640^\circ\text{F}$ in a kiln (furnace). Making one kilogram of cement sends one kilogram of CO$_2$ into the atmosphere.

Cement and concrete materials are mined from local or regional sources. There are close to 100 quarries in New York State that mine limestone for construction materials as well as other products. A quarry is a surface mine where the soil is removed and the exposed bedrock is extracted.

The model below represents the global exchange of carbon in different forms between Earth’s spheres. The numerical amounts in boxes represent the gigatons of carbon stored in a component of an Earth sphere. The arrows with numbers represent the amount and direction of carbon exchange between these components in gigatons per year.

Model of the Global Carbon Cycle in Gigatons of Carbon (GtC)

Sand mining is a necessary practice used to obtain the resources needed to make concrete. In 2017, China used 2.8 billion tons of sand in construction — enough to cover the entirety of New York State with a one-inch thick layer. Buildings, roads, and even the production of windows all require sand as a source material. The mining of sand, wherever it occurs, impacts Earth systems.

The model below shows the results of sand mining on Earth systems in China.

Model of Interacting Earth Systems Affected by Sand Mining for Concrete Production

Kingston became New York State’s first capital city in 1777, but was destroyed by the British on October 13, 1777. In the 19th century, Kingston grew in size due to its proximity to materials found in the region. Albany was later established as the permanent capital of New York State.

The map below shows some information about natural resource mines and bodies of water in New York State.

Selected Mines in New York State

Cement and concrete manufacturing uses large amounts of energy that come from burning fossil fuels. Certain steps in the manufacturing process release CO$_2$ directly into the atmosphere.

The table below lists four design solutions for cement and concrete production that have a lesser impact on Earth systems.

Design Solutions: Concrete Production

Base your answers to questions 28 through 32 on the information below and on your knowledge of Earth and Space Sciences. Some questions may require the use of the 2024 Edition Reference Tables for Earth and Space Sciences.

The Aral Sea Region

The Aral Sea, located in arid central Asia, is fed by the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya rivers. Agricultural productivity surrounding the Aral Sea has increased since the 1950s. During the 1960s, these two rivers were diverted to support irrigation, primarily for the cotton industry. This caused the Aral Sea to shrink, reducing the amount of fish available for food. It was the fourth largest lake in the world in the 1950s. It was only the sixth largest lake in the 1990s. Today, the Aral Sea isn’t even in the top 40 largest lakes of the world.

The Kok-Aral Dam was completed in 2005 to control the water level of the shrinking Aral Sea. This dam separated the original Aral Sea into the North Aral Sea and the South Aral Sea. The Western Aral Sea is all that remains of the South Aral Sea since the construction of the dam. The dam was designed to keep water from flowing from the North Aral Sea to the South Aral Sea.

The maps below show some information about changes in the Aral Sea.

The Shrinking of the Aral Sea

The table below shows some information about the Aral Sea from 1960 to 2007.

Aral Sea Data 1960–2007

Aral Sea Region Changes from 1960-1990

Scientists are concerned that what happened to the Aral Sea could happen to the Caspian Sea. The Volga River provides 86% of the water for the Caspian Sea. Forty dams have been constructed along the Volga River in the 20th century to provide power for the region. Construction of these dams significantly reduced the amount of water flowing through the Volga River into the Caspian Sea. This decrease in streamflow, in addition to climate change, has caused the Caspian Sea level to begin to drop.

The map below shows some information about rivers associated with the Caspian Sea and Aral Sea region.

Area Surrounding Caspian Sea and Aral Sea (2004)

Base your answers to questions 33 through 37 on the information below and on your knowledge of Earth and Space Sciences. Some questions may require the use of the 2024 Edition Reference Tables for Earth and Space Sciences.

The Gulf

The Gulf of Mexico, renamed to the Gulf of America in 2025, is an oceanic basin covering approximately 1,605,794 square kilometers with coastlines in the countries of Cuba, Mexico, and the United States of America. This body of water is commonly referred to as the Gulf. Thirty-three major rivers flow into the Gulf from the United States, with the largest being the Mississippi River. Approximately 70 million people live within the Mississippi River watershed.

Map of the Gulf

The Mississippi River watershed occupies about 3.1 million square kilometers of the United States. Most of this area is located in midwestern states. This is where agriculture plays a large economic role. Some farming practices negatively affect Earth systems.

The maps show some information about the Mississippi River watershed and a zone of hypoxia. The watershed area is shown on the map as a darker gray region. Hypoxia occurs when there is a critically low level of dissolved oxygen in the water. Dissolved oxygen levels of less than two to three mg/L can no longer support most aquatic life.

Map of Mississippi River Watershed and Hypoxic Zone

2024 Hypoxic Zone - Bottom Dissolved Oxygen

The Loop Current is the main surface ocean circulation feature in the open region of the Gulf. The eddies associated with the Loop Current change both spatially and temporally depending on the season. Climate computer models have projected that climate change will weaken the Loop Current and the eddies during this century. The map below shows some information about the Gulf region.

Topography, Surface Ocean Currents, and Major Rivers Affecting the Gulf Basin

The coastal resort city of Galveston, Texas, transports the most cargo of any port in the United States. In between Galveston Island and Bolivar Peninsula is the Houston Ship Channel. This channel generates over $906 billion in commerce, mainly from oil and gas refineries in the area of Galveston County. For this reason, stakeholders have developed a plan to protect the region from hurricanes, storm surges, and flooding. The project is estimated to cost $34 billion. It will include a series of 36 sea gates to seal off Galveston Bay from storm surge. It also includes building large dunes (12 to 14 feet tall) to shelter housing, and a ring barrier to protect the business district.

Galveston Coastline Protection Project Map

Base your answers to questions 42 through 46 on the information below and on your knowledge of Earth and Space Sciences. Some questions may require the use of the 2024 Edition Reference Tables for Earth and Space Sciences.

Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’pai Volcano

In January 2022, a submarine volcano named Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’pai (HTHH) caused the largest atmospheric explosion of the 21st century with the eruption column reaching a height of 58 km. Within the column, there were large amounts of liquid water and water vapor. The plume had layers of strongly enhanced water vapor that reached an altitude of between 19 and 28 km. The average ratio of water vapor at this level of Earth’s atmosphere is usually about 5 ppmv (ratio of the mass of water vapor to the mass of dry air). Twenty-four hours after the eruption, instruments attached to weather balloons measured water vapor ratios of 2900 ppmv. One recording station, Reunion Island, was still measuring ratios of 358 ppmv in the upper atmosphere one week after the eruption.

Water vapor plays a large role in climate feedbacks. Water vapor is the only greenhouse gas that will condense at temperatures present in the atmosphere. Water can be removed from the atmosphere by precipitation.

The map below shows the location of the undersea volcano, HTHH, and Reunion Island. Dots indicate locations where water vapor content data was collected.

Location of Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha'pai and Reunion Island

The table below shows some information about water vapor measured from different locations around Australia.

Altitudes of Water Vapor Detected from Weather Instruments 24 Hours After Eruption

Since the late 1800s, global average surface temperatures have increased by about 1.1°C. Data from satellites, weather balloons, and ground measurements confirm that as climate warms, the amount of atmospheric water vapor increases by 7% per degree Celsius. The graph below shows some information about global average temperatures based on the amount of fossil fuels used globally.

The Effect of Global Fossil Fuel Usage Scenarios on Global Average Temperatures (1850-2100)

Until a decrease in greenhouse gases occurs, creative ways to reduce climate change may be considered. One way is to make clouds thicker and brighter through a technique called “marine cloud brightening” (MCB). This process is shown in the model below. Arrows represent the direction of energy flow.

This method uses many ships that travel over large areas of the ocean. The ships spray seawater into the atmosphere, adding salt that acts as condensation nuclei. This creates thicker and brighter clouds that reflect additional solar radiation.

Model of Marine Cloud Brightening Process (MCB)